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INDEX - 7 subjects:

• CLOTHES:
  1. Dressing for the occasion
  2. National dress in Britain
  3. Civilian or non-competitive national dress in Scottland

• EDUCATION:
  1. Education in England and Wale
  2. Education in Scottland
  3. Education in Northern Ireland
  4. Slang peculiar to or originating from public schools

• HOME + GLOSSARY
  1. The British have the smallest homes in Europe
  2. Glossary

• BRITISH CUISINE
  1. A brief history
  2. Today
  3. Regional Specialities
  4. Pies, Puddings, Buns and Cakes
  5. The Great Britain Breakfast
  6. Fish and Chips
  7. a) British Cheese; b) A - Z of British Cheese

• FORNAL AND INFORMAL GREETINGS AND INTRODUCTION
  1. First meeting
  2. Subsequent meetings

• SHOPS
  1. The small shop
  2. Supermarket
  3. Department stores
  4. Out of town Shopping Centres
  5. Fair Trade

• BRITISH WORK CULTURE
  1. The working day
  2. Tea Break

Dressing for the Occasion

When invited to a formal / business function there is nothing worse than discovering you've dressed incorrectly. If you receive an invitation that gives no indication of dress requirements, telephone your host and ask. The following will guide you on formal wear.

National Dress in Britain

Scottish National Dress

One of the most famous national costumes in the world is that worn in Scotland, the kilt, however some people say that the kilt is not as traditional as some would have it. Be that as it may it is certainly what people associate with Scotland, along with whisky and haggis that is. Some people consider it very bad luck to wear a kilt in a tartanthat does not belong to your family.

Just to remind you should you visit Scotland any time - the men do not wear skirts - they wear kilts - and don't you forget it!

Gentlemen

Today traditional dress for men in Scotland is a kilt with shirt, waistcoat and tweed jacket, stockings with garter flashes, brogue shoes and a sporran. A bonnet is often worn displaying the clan crest.

Ladies

Traditionally ladies don't wear kilts, they do however wear dresses or pleated skirts in a tartan material. More often though they wear a light plaid or shawl of tartan material.

Welsh National Dress

Welsh National dress is relatively young and not as famous as Scottish National dress. Still they do have a National costume, but it's the way the ladies dress that is most well known, in fact there isn't really a National costume for men although recently through the rise of nationalism in Wales a tartan has been created and tartan trousers or kilts are often worn.

For the ladies the typical Welsh costume consists of a hat, made of black felt, with a high crown and wide brim, which is worn over a lace cap. A red flannel shawl is worn over a crisp white blouse, and a full skirt made of wool with a black and white check pattern and a starched, white apron. Proper Welsh ladies always wore black woollen stockings and black shoes and carried a basket, made from willow withies.

Irish National Dress

With the revival of Irish dancing, the traditional Irish costume has become associated with the bright flamboyant costumes worn by traditional Irish dancers. However in ancient Ireland people were more likely to be seen wearing 'leine' (Irish for shirt), trews (Irish for trousers) and long cloaks fastened with a brooch.

English National Dress

Unfortunately the English don't really have a traditional National Dress as such. In one notorious episode during the Miss World pageant the English contestant came out wearing a Beefeater's costume, it was very embarrassing I can tell you.

There have been calls over the years to create a costume, but as usual no-one can decide on what it should look like. Even Henry VIII got in on the act and commissioned an artist called Van Dyck to create an English National Costume, this also failed.

SCOTTISH HIGHLAND DRESS

While Scottish-American dancers, pipers, caber tossers, shot putters, sheaf-throwers and kilt makers adhere very strictly to the standards of those skills as devised in Scotland, for some reason when the average Scottish-American is asked to consider the norms of Highland dress for non-competitive wear, there is sometimes a curious reaction.

Some people in North America apparently believe that any outlining of what is "correct" in Scottish Highland dress is a gross infringement if their independence and human rights. However many other people are interested to know what the standards are, even if they choose to exhibit variations on the theme themselves. Knowing just how much to infringe on the standards to show individuality and yet still maintain the traditions is a matter of subtlety which those with skill can enjoy.

To discard having any standards in any sphere of life leads only to chaos. Some believe that there is extreme danger of the genuine traditions of Highland dress being completely lost in experimentation and a preference for "costume" in place of Scottish national dress in the United States. While there is always a place for well-researched costume reproductions in any field, there is reason to hope that a growing number of Campbells will find the means of being able to dress well in the national dress of their heritage when the occasion demands.

For those who are confused by the plethora of "costume" one sees at the average North American Highland Games and who are yet more interested in participating in the continuing and evolving live traditions of Scottish National dress, there follows an outline of modern standards for their guidance. Nobody will arrest you if you do not always get things "right" but for those who like to know, here are some guidelines:

UNIFORMS

Scottish military uniforms have continued to evolve with the needs and fashions of the times.
Highland regiments of the British army have worn kilts, Lowland regiments have worn trews (tartan slacks). The pipers in the bands of both have worn kilts.
Pipe bands of other services and of civilian organizations have often imitated the uniforms of the Highland regiments.
Today it is generally accepted that, for the sake of uniformity, women in bands will wear the same uniforms as the men.
Scouts in Scotland may wear their kilt with Scout uniform shirt.

PERFORMERS

Athletic competitors at Highland Games sporting events, particularly the heavy events, wear sports or tank shirts (or none) with kilts, kilt stockings and sports shoes. They seldom wear a sporran on the field as it gets in the way of the caber etc.

For Highland dancing competition (as opposed to Scottish Country Dancing), girls wear a tartan skirt designed like a kilt but with no sporran. They wear a blouse which may or may not have some reference to earlier styles of men's shirts. The typical dress for these competitions has improved considerably in simplicity during the development of the competitions in recent years. Men and boys wear day dress with dancing pumps. Again, check local organizations for requirements.

Scottish Country Dancers who perform in exhibition at Highland Games or Scottish events generally wear day or evening dress as appropriate to the time of day. Frequently the women wear white dresses with tartan sashes and, because the exercise is warming, the men wear shirts without jackets in the United States.

These often stiff performances of country dances should not be confused with recreational and social enjoyment of the same dances. Sadly but frequently these exhibitions show none of the spirit but merely the precision of the traditional dances and the men are too often trained to look emasculated by the dance teachers who emphasize a French rather than a folk tradition in having them keep a straight back. None should dismiss the practice of Scottish country dancing until they have seen a Highland ball in progress with people enjoying the dancing as a social activity of the most exhilarating kind.

Pipers and members of pipe bands, see above. Individual pipers may wear civilian day dress for competitions.

CIVILIAN OR NON-COMPETITIVE NATIONAL DRESS

LADIES' DAY DRESS

For ladies this most often means a well-cut tartan skirt, dress or suit in the latest fashion. Traditionally Highland ladies wore fashionable clothes where they could afford them and added a light plaid or shawl of tartan material and this custom is not out of place today. Skirt length depends upon either fashion, occasion or preference. Ladies wear kilted skirts (kilting meaning pleating) but not kilts (except when in band uniform).

Since ladies' fashions are so much more varied than those of men, they lend themselves to historical references without entering the realm of reproduction costume. The calf-length tartan kilted skirt with a wide belt and a blouse using some lace at cuffs and collar or down the front, sometimes combined with a tartan or velvet sleeveless jacket or waistcoat, has been used successfully by some Scots girls who were obliged to appear with those of other nations in National dress. When combined with a light plaid worn as a shawl or a hooded cloak of tartan, variations on this theme can be striking.

For more formal day dress an ankle length tartan skirt can be impressive.

MEN'S DAY DRESS

For men in Scotland, full day dress in civilian Scottish National dress means kilt stockings with garter flashes, brogue shoes, a kilt and sporran, a shirt, tie, waistcoat (vest) and tweed jacket. A bonnet is useful particularly as it allows the wearing of the crest-in-buckled strap silver badge and, when available, the plant badge.

For everyday use there are as many varieties of dress above the belt with a kilt as there are with slacks. Depending upon the task or situation one can wear anything from no shirt to a sports shirt, from a pullover to an anorak. Only remember that even with a fishing jacket, it is best to wear short jackets since the longer jackets which look fine with slacks will not look well with a kilt if they extend more than about 6" below the waist. Shoes and stockings, or lack of them, can also be varied to task and time.

However here the idea is to outline those norms of Scottish national day dress with which you can be secure in any situation where a more traditional or senior person in the United States would wear a jacket and tie with street clothes. Using that as standard you can then vary the combinations for more informal situations.

The items of full Scottish national day dress are discussed here in the order in which they should be put on when dressing to cause the least strain. Lacing shoes is easier without a kilt.

SHIRTS

Due to the warmth of climate and preferred level of house heating in the United States, men commonly forgo the waistcoat and, on less formal occasions such as at Highland Games, the tie and jacket. This means that the shirt becomes of added importance, however the shirts with large full sleeves sold by Scottish traders are more costume than National Dress, and unpatterned dress or sports shirts in the current fashion are particularly appropriate. The use of "T" shirts with the kilt is more justifiable when participation in sporting events or for the younger generation. Some of a military background wear military style shirts which look well. In the United States it is currently customary among retired military gentlemen to wear medals with these shirts. The practice is entirely a matter of personal choice and is in no way an obligation, very much the opposite.

To avoid possible embarrassment for those visiting Games in Scotland, it is as well to be aware of the different customs there with regard to medals, name tags and other items sometimes worn in North America. In Scotland medals would not be worn in daytime with civilian clothes except when participating in a military ceremonial such as wreath-laying or armistice (veteran's or memorial day) parade. Similarly plastic name tags, while possibly now worn at some business conferences in Britain, are never worn at Highland Games in Scotland and are considered the equivalent in the United States of turning up at a reception with a plastic pocket-protector full of ballpoints, a bit nerdish. But it is up to you.

However in North America, since the successful recruiting of previously unknown people to the clan societies requires that those doing the recruiting are easily identifiable to strangers, it has become customary for those manning tents to wear a plastic name tag if they wish to do so. These name tags are not, of course, a part of Scottish National Dress as such, and their use is to be identified with the work that is being done and not with the clothes being worn.

If you need support there is no disgrace in wearing some, however if you wear your kilt in the traditional way it is important to be sure to wear shirts with long tails and aprons.

TIES

Tartan ties are seldom worn in Scotland, particularly with Highland dress. But there is no law against them. The same ideas of attempting a balanced effect and compatible colors applies when selecting ties to wear with Highland dress as do with street clothes. Since jackets are seldom worn at United States Highland Games in the heat of summer, ties might be seen as appropriate for more formal occasions such as church, parades and receptions when jackets are worn.

STOCKINGS AND FLASHES

Day stockings in Scotland are generally heavier than evening stockings, both for warmth and, when out on the hill shooting or stalking, for protection from the heather. However the warmer climate in the United States generally calls for stockings of a lighter knit. Garter flashes can be bought either with adjustable elastic or in the old style to be wound and tucked. The color of stockings and flashes should compliment both kilt and each other. Vermilion red is often used for flashes with good effect, but some wear green or light blue.

The tops of kilt stocking generally fold over for a couple of inches, or even fold twice, down and up again, and so hide the elastic garters. However some stockings in an older style display the garters and have a castellated top. These need special care in tying the necessary ribbon garters. The top of the stocking should be worn two fingers width below the lump of bone which protrudes on the outside of the leg at the top of the side of the calf.

SHOES OR BROGUES

Early Highland shoes were primitive and more like undecorated mocersons or moccasins, pieces of hide pulled together round the ankle with a thong. These would have been generally brown in color. With the transformation of the fighting strength, chiefs and chieftains of the clans into Highland regiments and their officers in the second half of the 18th century, the footwear of the Highlanders improved and became black polished leather. Since for many years the majority of those civilians found kilted in Scotland had formerly served in Highland regiments, it was natural that the custom persisted of wearing black shoes with a kilt. Many feel strongly on one side or the other of this issue but if you take the long view it is a matter of wearing what seems most appropriate to you. In Scotland black will be least obtrusive. The shoes or brogues worn in Highland regiments are virtually the same as American black `wing-tip' shoes. For those on a tight budget, these are ideal for wearing with a kilt as they can equally well be worn with street clothes. There are more elaborate brogues available on the market from dealers in Highland dress which have a more open lacing, allowing the longer tasselled laces to be worn cross-tied about the calf.

KILTS (singular = a kilt)

The kilt should have pleats all the way round the back and sides with only the front apron of both ends being unpleated. Men who hold the ends of their kilt in each hand with the pleats behind them should fold the right hand end about them first, the left and end folding over the apron of the right. This leaves the edge of the end which started in the left hand lying along the right side of the right thigh. Ladies' tartan skirts fold the opposite way.

Civilian and officer's kilts are made with straps, military other ranks kilts use pins at the waist as they must fit many sizes of waist. In Scotland a heavier material is generally used for day kilts and a lighter for evening, although if too light, kiltmakers sometimes sew elastic along the inside of the pleats about 6' above the bottom hem to avoid over-exposure during a dance swing.

Your kilt should hang an inch free of the ground in front of your knee when you kneel down. Adjusting this length (using a belt if necessary) is highly important as kilts worn too long or too short can make you look ridiculous. When first wearing a kilt you must learn to cross your legs or keep the knees together when seated.

BELTS

Since the tops of modern kilts are not designed to be exposed to view, normally being hidden by a belt or waistcoat (vest), a piper's belt, about 2 1/4" wide and with a metal buckle about 2 1/2" x 4", is particularly useful in the United States. For evening wear the belt should be of black leather and the buckle silver. The buckle gives a chance to display ornamental work, particularly of heraldic design.

SKIAN DUBH

Skian Dubhs (pronounced skian doo), the sheathed knife worn on the right side of the right leg in the top of the stocking, are always handsome and even useful but rember that when dancing they need to be firmly secured by tighter garters. Lawmen in the United States with limited sophistication have been known to consider it a concealed weapon and so illegal. With both dirks and skians the more gaudy and over-large Cairngorm stones (garnets) in the tops can upset the balance of the knife. The skian should be worn with the top of the sheath just above the garter.

DIRKS

Ebony and silver Dirks with black leather sheaths are worn by pipers as day dress but by civilians only as evening dress, however other belt-hung sheath knives may be useful with day dress when hunting or camping. Again, check the local laws. The innovation of including knife and fork in the dirk seems first to have appeared in the middle of the 181t century. Dirks were originally worn immediately to the right of the sporran. However military custom now has them worn on the side of the right buttock in the position used for a bayonet.

SPORRANS

With the recent rise in urban misunderstanding of rural customs and environmental issues, care should be taken in selecting fur or animal head sporrans which avoid infringement of import or interstate laws. Day sporrans made of the Skins of small fur bearing animals had been know earlier but became popular in Scotland in the early 19th century, otters, seals and badgers being favorites. Previously the bag type of sporran of cured leather with a metal half-moon clasp at the top was common. This came back into use in the Highland regiments recently with an interest in historical dress. The metal clasp gives opportunity for decorative or heraldic emblems. The standard all-leather sporran is perfectly adequate for day dress and some have adopted the regimental custom of inserting a small silver heraldic crest or emblem in the center of the smooth panel. The leather for evening sporrans is most often black, rather than the brown more often used for day wear.

SPORRAN TRAPS

The strap can be either a leather strap or a strap with a center section of silvered chain to show on either side of the sporran, the latter being particularly apt for evening wear. Again, black with silver buckle and chain in most used with evening dress.

JACKETS AND WAISTCOATS

Waistcoats, known as `vests' in the trade and in western North America, add considerably to the style of Highland dress, however in warmth climates they are not often practical in summer or indoors until old age warrants more warmth and dignity. Similarly the weight of tweed for kilt jackets should be lighter for use in the warmer situations. Some Highland gentry still wear checked tweed kilt jackets, however in the United States the convention about not mixing checks means that in general plain unpatterned cloth is preferred for kilt jackets. This does not hold in Britain. Again, the color should compliment that of the tartan worn, certain muted browns, blues and greens being handsome with Campbell tartan.

If you are going to wear a jacket with your kilt it is best to buy or borrow a kilt jacket as normal sports jackets are too long and do not do a kilt justice. If you can afford a second day kilt jacket, a dark charcoal gray tweed jacket and waistcoat look exceptionally well at weddings and particularly at funerals.

BONNETS

The traditional Highland bonnet was and is based upon the old blue bonnet of the Scots which can be found in 16th century drawings of Highlanders. The folding "Glengarry" was invented in Victorian times as convenient for military use and has now come back into general use in Highland regiments. Today the civilian style of bonnet is almost identical to that worn in the first half ofthe 20th century by some Highland regiments. The civilian style bonnets worn with Scottish National Dress are most often of the same cut as those formerly worn by officers and may be of pale tan, light blue, dark blue or Lovat green. Some have dicing and others do not. The use of the dark blue bonnet with dicing may be more appropriate for evening use perhaps, but that is a matter of taste.

The slit and ribbons go at the back of the head, the badge over and behind the left eye and then the top is pulled down to the right front. The bonnets look best when worn slightly over the front of the head, perhaps a finger's width above the eyebrow, never on the back of the head and never with hair showing under the front band. Bonnets should be worn for parades but must always be taken off when entering a church or private house (although not necessarily a tent). In Scotland the custom of taking off one's hat to a lady was awkward with a bonnet, due to messing the hair, and so it became more customary to touch the bonnet in a salute when out of doors.

CAP BADGES

The Chiefs of clans have, by customary courtesy, allowed their followers to use the Chief's heraldic crest as a cap or bonnet badge when worn within a buckled strap with the Chief's motto and all combined as a silver badge. Members of armigerous families (those whose Chieftains have been granted arms) may have different crests from the Chief, so that you will see a Campbell of Airds wearing a swan, or a Campbell of Inverawe wearing a deer's head crest. Those who have not traced their ancestry to some armigerous family or received a grant of arms themselves, wear the Chief's crest badge. If a small sprig of the `clan' plant badge is available it may be stuck behind the crest badge and rising no more than about 1 1/2" above the top of the badge.

NO FEATHERS

Feathers are NOT generally worn in the bonnet in Scotland except by Chiefs. Officially the rule is; a Chief wears three feathers, a chieftain wears two, and an armigerous gentleman (one who has a right to heraldic arms) wears one. However the wearing of bonnet feathers by those who are not chiefs is generally considered presumptuous in Scotland. As with the heraldry of Clan Campbell, in one sense these rules do not extend outside Scotland. At the same time it is in the interest of overseas Campbells to uphold customs which add to the dignity of their chiefs. Voluntarily observing the rule and custom of the Scots in the matter of bonnet feathers is one way to strengthen the unity of the clan and to reinforce the genuine and traditional in Highland dress.

Hackles' or short thick bunches of feather about -- cm (2") long are worn by some Highland regiments but are not currently seen in civilian Highland dress in Scotland. Some among the once Jacobite clans are currently interested in reviving the custom of the white cockade, a rather divisive concept rooted in complete misunderstanding of the consequences of Jacobite success.

CROMACHS

The long stick with a curved top used by both stockmen and shepherds in Scotland is, on more well dressed occasions such as Highland Games there, used by men with daytime Highland dress. Its use is equally appropriate in North America. The cromach (pron. CROMach, with the `O' as in song) gained popularity in the 20th century and has come into accepted use for the Stewards (or organizers) who run Highland Games in Scotland. But use of the cromach is in no way limited to those in authority. The making of fine cromachs is a craft much admired in Scotland and they are generally made of hazel and sometimes with a horn handle with a carved finial. Some makers bend twigs on the tree and wait years for them to grow thick enough to cut for a cromach with the hook grown in.

There is another style of stick, sometimes seen at Games in North America, which is a twisted or club-like stick. This is properly a shelailagh and is more of Irish than Highland origin and not particularly appropriate to Highlanders unless of `Scots-Irish' ancestry perhaps.

EVENING DRESS

Highland evening dress is more formal than day dress. There is a misconception among some people in America that the British are more formal than the Americans. This is only true among limited number of more cosmopolitan Britons for whom making some occasions more formal than others adds to the quality, dignity and variety of life. The same can be found among Americans of a more traditional background who like a change of pace now and again. There are even a few in the United States and Britain who find any vestige of formality to be somehow anti-democratic, tending towards the Chinese who for a time dressed everyone the same in a forced equality.

Because of the vigorous and even athletic nature of Highland reels and Country dances when danced for social enjoyment, modern men's evening Highland dress has tended to do away with the `Christmas-tree' or `everything-bar-the-kitchen-stove' style of dress. There was a time up to WWII in Scotland where plaids were worn to balls, sometimes even with sword belts, dirks, hunting horns, silver dag pistols and the keys of the castle. To some, these all vied with military decorations to create an impression of a hardware store in motion, handsome though the effect undoubtedly was.

Today the silver belt buckles, miniature (in the United States) military medals, silver buttons and silver-headed hair sporrans create quite enough dazzle without causing too much danger to the opposite sex and to their dresses, which can all too easily catch on sharp objects.

LADIES' EVENING DRESS

The recognized formal evening dress for Highland ladies is to wear a dress in the fashion of the time or of their choosing. A fairly recent custom has developed of wearing a silk (or similar) tartan sash. Obviously the choice of color of dress should be compatible with the tartan to be worn. Like the bonnet feathers for the men, the shoulder on which the sash is worn is important for ladies. Lady Chiefs, the wives of Chiefs and the wives of the Colonel of the Regiment of Scottish regiments, all wear the sash over the left shoulder. All others wear the sash pinned on the right shoulder. This is one of those harmless conventions which ad spice to ladies' Highland dress.

Evening dresses designed of tartan have been worn at times to great effect. Some absolutely stunning evening dresses have been made from the darker Campbell or Black Watch dress material, when it can be found. With a tartan dress the sash need not necessarily be worn.

MEN'S EVENING DRESS

In general, in the evening Highland dress for men everything tends to be of finer or thinner material. This is true of the dancing brogues or pumps, the stockings, kilts, shirts, waistcoats and jackets. The items of day dress above are outlined in the order they would be put on and the same order applies for evening dress.

The area of widest variety in acceptable evening dress can be found above the belt. There are a number of styles of jacket to chose from and these fall into two categories. In the first category are jackets with waistcoats which allow for wearing a bow tie, and in the second are those which involve the wearing of a jabot or lace collar and ruffle. (Jabot is originally a French word and so pronounced ja-BO). The former are generally of dark material similar to that used for a dinner jacket or tuxedo and the latter generally of velvet or velveteen. Since the latter style fits closer to the waist, those with any tendency to a portly disposition may find the former more appropriate. Silver buttons are the norm for both styles. Smooth, slightly domed, square buttons often look best unless you have inherited family buttons.

For those occasions where black tie is required but where the climate makes jackets uncomfortable, the Highland regiments adopted what the British Services term "Red Sea Rig" for officers mess dinners in the tropics. Tartan trews are worn with an evening long sleeved shirt and black bow tie. The top of the trews are hidden not by a belt but by a silk cummerbund. The cummerbunds were of regimental tartan but with the dark Campbell tartan a red, green or blue cummerbund could be effective. British miniature decorations were not normally worn with this less formal rig.

BUYING MEN'S HIGHLAND DRESS

Your complete outfit can be bought at once or in stages. There is always the initial choice between trews (tartan dress slacks) and a kilt. But given the ambition and self-confidence to wear a kilt in public, the first purchases can be phased as follows:

Phase I:

• Day kilt of Campbell tartan (`ancient' in the trade). Day stockings and garters/flashes (usually red) Black wing-tip shoes or kilt brogues Piper's belt (black with silver buckle) Day sporran Some buy a bonnet and cap badge first, but that can wait

Phase II

Phase III

Phase IV

EDUCATION

England

Education in England may differ from the system used elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Basically, there are two systems: one covering England, Wales and Northern Ireland and one covering Scotland. The two education systems have different emphases. Traditionally the English, Welsh and Northern Irish system has emphasised depth of education whereas the Scottish system has emphasised breadth. Thus English, Welsh and Northern Irish students tend to sit a small number of more advanced examinations and Scottish students tend to sit a larger number of less advanced examinations. It should be noted that local English practice can vary from this general picture although Scottish practice is well nigh universal.

Education in Wales

Nowadays education in Wales differs slightly from the system used in England.

The school years in England and Wales

In general, the cut-off point for ages is the end of August, so all children must be of a particular age on the 1^st of September in order to begin class that month.

• Primary Education
• • Infant School or Primary School
  • • Reception, age 4 to 5
    • Year 1, age 5 to 6
    • Year 2, age 6 to 7 (KS1 National Curriculum Tests - England only)
  • Junior School or Primary School
  • • Year 3, age 7 to 8
    • Year 4, age 8 to 9
    • Year 5, age 9 to 10
    • Year 6, age 10 to 11 (Eleven plus exams in some areas of England, Key Stage 2 National Curriculum Tests)
• Secondary Education
• • Middle School, High School or Secondary School
  • • Year 7, old First Form, age 11 to 12
    • Year 8, old Second Form, age 12 to 13
    • Year 9, old Third Form, age 13 to 14 (Key Stage 3 National Curriculum Tests, known as SATs (Standard Assessment Tests))
  • Upper School or Secondary School
  • • Year 10, old Fourth Form, age 14 to 15
    • Year 11, old Fifth Form, age 15 to 16 (old O Level examinations, modern GCSE examinations)
  • Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College
  • • Year 12 or Lower Sixth, age 16 to 17 (AS-level examinations)
    • Year 13 or Upper Sixth, age 17 to 18 (A2-level examinations. Both AS-levels and A2-levels count towards A-levels)

In some regions of England, pupils attend a Lower (Primary) School before going to, a Middle School between 8 and 12 or, more commonly 9 and 13, and then a High School or Upper School. Other, more vocational qualifications offered including GNVQs and BTECs.

Education in Scotland

Education in Scotland differs from the system used elsewhere in the United Kingdom . Basically, there are two systems: one covering England, Wales or Northern Ireland and one covering Scotland. The two education systems have different emphases. Traditionally, the English, Welsh and Northern Irish system has emphasised depth of education whereas the Scottish system has emphasised breadth. Thus English, Welsh and Northern Irish students tend to sit a small number of more advanced examinations and Scottish students tend to sit a larger number of less advanced examinations.

The school years in Scotland

In general, the cut-off point for ages is the end of August, so all children must be of a particular age on the 1^st of September in order to begin class that month.

• Nursery School
• • Year 1, age 3 - 5.
• Primary School
• • Primary 1, age range 4 - 6.
  • Primary 2, age range 5 - 7.
  • Primary 3, age range 6 - 8.
  • Primary 4, age range 7 - 9.
  • Primary 5, age range 8 - 10.
  • Primary 6, age range 9 - 11.
  • Primary 7, age range 10 - 12.
• Secondary School
• • First year, age range 11 - 13.
  • Second year, age range 12 - 14.
  • Third year, age range 13 - 15.
  • Fourth year, age range 14 - 16.
  • Fifth year, age range 15 - 17.
  • Sixth year, age range 16 - 18.

Note that the age ranges specify the youngest age for a child entering that year and the oldest age for a child leaving that year. Also note that children may leave school at the end of any school year after they reach 16 years of age and that they may attend Scottish universities when they are 17. Therefore two sets of national examinations are held. The first set, the Standard Grade examinations, take place in the Fourth year of secondary school and show basic education level. The second set, the Higher examinations take place in the Fifth and Sixth years. A third level, Advanced Higher, is sometimes taken by students intending to study at an English university, or those wishing to pass straight into second year at a Scottish university, and covers the gap between the Scottish "Higher" level and the English "Advanced" level courses, although there is not always a one-to-one mapping.

Education in Northern Ireland

Education in Northern Ireland differs slightly from the system used elsewhere in the United Kingdom . The Northern Irish system emphasises a greater depth of education compared to the English and Welsh systems. The majority of examinations sat, and education plans followed, in Northern Irish schools are set by the Council for Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA).

School holidays in Northern Ireland are also considerably different to the rest of the United Kingdom. Northern Irish schools generally only get 1 day off for the half term holiday (in February, May and October. Christmas holidays usually only consist of a week or so, the same with the Easter vacation, compared to England’s two weeks. The major difference, however, is that Northern Irish summer holidays are considerably longer with the entirety of July and August off giving a nine week summer holiday.

The school years in Northern Ireland

In general, the cut-off point for ages is the end of August, so all children must be of a particular age on the 1^st of September in order to begin class that month.

• Primary Education
• • Primary School
  • • Primary 1, age 4 to 5
    • Primary 2, age 5 to 6
    • Primary 3, age 6 to 7
    • Primary 4, age 7 to 8
    • Primary 5, age 8 to 9
    • Primary 6, age 9 to 10
    • Primary 7, age 10 to 11 ( Eleven plus exams to determine secondary school placement.)
      
• Secondary Education
• • High School or Grammar School
  • • First Form, age 11 to 12
    • Second Form, age 12 to 13
    • Third Form, age 13 to 14
    • Fourth Form, age 14 to 15
    • Fifth Form, age 15 to 16 (old O-Level examinations, modern GCSE examinations)
  • High School, Grammar School, or Sixth Form College
  • • Lower Sixth, age 16 to 17 (AS-level examinations, where applicable)
    • Upper Sixth, age 17 to 18 (A-levels)

Primary education

Primary or elementary education is the first years of formal, structured education that occurs during childhood. In most Western countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education (though in many jurisdictions it is permissible for parents to provide it).

Primary education generally begins when children are four to seven years of age. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about twelve years of age (adolescence); some educational systems have separate middle schools for that period. Primary and secondary education together are sometimes (in particular, in Canada and the United States) referred to as " K-12 " education, (K is for kindergarten, 12 is for twelfth grade).

Typically, primary education is provided in schools, where (in the absence of parental movement or other intervening factors) the child will stay, in steadily advancing classes, until they complete it and move on to secondary schooling. Children are usually placed in classes with one teacher who will be primarily responsible for their education and welfare for that year. This teacher may be assisted to varying degrees by specialist teachers in certain subject areas, often music or physical education. The continuity with a single teacher and the opportunity to build up a close relationship with the class is a notable feature of the primary education system. Over the past few decades, schools have been testing various arrangements which break from the one-teacher, one-class mold.

The major goals of primary education are achieving basic literacy and numeracy amongst all their students, as well as establishing foundations in science, geography, history and other social sciences. The relative priority of various areas, and the methods used to teach them, are an area of considerable political debate.

Traditionally, various forms of corporal punishment were an integral part of early education in the UK. This practice has now been outlawed in the UK.

Kindergarten

The German expression kindergarten usually refers to the first level of official education, according to the K-12 educational system. Kindergarten is usually administered in an elementary school.

The equivalent in England and Wales is reception. The Australian equivalent of this is the preparatory grade (commonly called 'grade prep' or 'prep'), which is the year before the first grade. In the state of New South Wales, however, it is called kindergarten. At least in Victoria, kindergarten (distinct from grade prep) is a form of, and used interchangeably with, pre-school.

The first kindergarten was opened in 1837 in Bad Blankenburg , Germany by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. The first kindergarten in the United States was established by Margarethe (Margaretta) Meyer Schurz (wife of activist/statesman Carl Schurz), in Watertown, Dodge County, Wisconsin.

Youngsters, usually aged 4-6 attend kindergarten to learn the finer points of meeting friends (and enemies), professional authority (in the form of a teacher), playtime, naptime, drawing, music, sometimes the basics of reading and writing, and various other activities. For children, who previously have spent most of their time at home, kindergarten often serves the purpose of training them to be apart from their parents without anxiety.

The youngster continues to Grade 1 after kindergarten.

The actual word "kindergarten", as one may guess, translates to "children's garden". Many private businesses in the USA name their day-care businesses 'Kindergarten' or 'Kindergarden'. Kindergarten establishment (day-care) in Germany are for pre-school children of all ages and are often run by churches, city or town administrations. Kindergartens (German plural Kindergärten) in Germany are not a part of the actual school system, such as in the USA.

Kindergartens often last only for half a day (morning or afternoon), though in many locations there are full-day kindergartens.

Elementary school

The elementary school consists of the first seven years of school, that is, grades 1 through 5 or 6, as well as kindergarten, a preliminary year of school before grade 1 (known in England and Wales as “Reception”). Originally, however, it was studied after primary school in the 19th century, (some schools that have only the youngest students are called primary schools to this day). Also known as grammar school in the United States it is a major segment of compulsory education. Until the latter third of the 20th century, however, grammar school (or elementary school) was grades 1 through 8. After grammar school, one usually attends high school . (In many districts, grades 5-8 or 5-9 were called " middle school ", or further separated into " intermediate school ", "middle school", and/or " junior high school”).

Secondary education

Secondary education, or secondary school, is a period of education which follows directly after primary education (such as intermediate school or elementary school), and which may be followed by tertiary or "post-secondary" education. The purpose of a secondary education can be to prepare for either higher education or vocational training. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of education, with middle school covering any gaps. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. Primary and secondary education together are sometimes (in particular, in Canada and the United States ) referred to as " K-12 " education, ( K is for kindergarten, 12 is for twelfth grade).

Grammar schools in the United Kingdom

In education in the United Kingdom , a grammar school is a secondary school attended by pupils aged 11 to 18 to which entry is controlled by means of an academically selective process consisting, largely or exclusively, of a written examination. After leaving a grammar school, as with any other secondary school, a student may go into further education at a college or university.

The examination is called the eleven plus. Partly due to the failure to fully implement the tri-partite system prescribed by the 1944 Education Act, the examination came to be seen as delivering a pass/fail result with the academically selected pupils passing and attending grammar schools and the remaining pupils being deemed to have failed and being consigned to the poorly funded schools euphemistically designated Secondary Modern Schools.

This arrangement proved politically unsustainable, and, over the period 1960 to 1975, non-selective ("comprehensive") education was instituted across a substantial majority of the country. The eleven plus examination had been championed by the educational psychologist Cyril Burt and the uncovering of his fraudulent research played a minor part in accelerating this process.

To understand grammar schools in the UK, some history is needed. After World War II, the government reorganised the secondary schools into two basic types. Secondary moderns were intended for children who would be going into a trade and concentrated on the basics plus practical skills; grammar schools were intended for children who would be going on to higher education and concentrated on the classics, science, etc. This system lasted until the 1960s, at which point changes in the political climate led to the general acceptance that this was a discriminatory system which was not getting the best out of all children. This was partly because some authorities tended to prioritise their budgets on the grammar schools, damaging the education prospects of children attending secondary moderns.

The decision was taken to switch to a single type of school designed to give every child a complete education. That is why this new type of school is called a comprehensive school. However the timetable of the changeover was left to the local authorities, some of whom were very resistant to the whole idea and thus dragged their feet for as long as possible. The result is that there is now a mixture. Most authorities run a proper comprehensive system, a few run essentially the old system of secondary moderns and grammar schools (except the secondary moderns are now called "comprehensives"). Some run comprehensive schools along side one or two remaining grammar schools.

The Labour government that came to power in 1997 instituted measures that allowed parents to force a local referendum on whether to abolish grammar schools in their area. The form of this referendum depends on whether there is still a full two-tier system running, in which case all parents with children at primary schools in the area are eligible to vote, or whether there are only a few grammar schools in the area, in which case only those parents with children at primaries that regularly send children to the grammar school are eligible. By 2003, only a few referenda had taken place and none of these had delivered the requisite majority for conversion.

The debate over selective education has been widened by other measures introduced by the Labour government, allowing schools to select a portion of their intake by "aptitude" for a specific subject. There are many who think that selection allows children to receive the form of education best suited for their abilities, while "one-size-fits-all" comprehensives fail everybody equally. One of the greatest attacks on the comprehensive system is that it leads, in essence, to selection on the grounds of wealth as the good schools are generally located in areas with expensive housing, so children from poor areas are denied the possibility of attending them. Conversely, there are many who think that the selection of children at 11 divides them into "successes" and "failures" at that age, and is therefore wrong. The current Labour government, from the party that originally championed comprehensive education, appears to favour the first of these groups, and their introduction of local referenda on grammar schools has been attacked by opponents of selective education as an unworkable system designed to give the semblance of choice while maintaining the status quo.

Private schools generally give the same sort of education as grammar schools, but there are exceptions; Gordonstoun for one. In areas where the local authority provides a comprehensive education – which some parents don't like for various reasons – independent schools are particularly common.

Higher education

Higher education is education provided by universities and other institutions that award academic degrees, such as university colleges, and liberal arts colleges .

Higher education includes both the teaching and the research activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as quaternary education). Higher education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as vocational education. However, most professional education is included within higher education, and many postgraduate qualifications are strongly vocationally or professionally oriented, for example in disciplines such as law and medicine.

Degrees and Graduation

There is a three-level hierarchy of degrees (Bachelor, Master, Doctor) currently used in the United Kingdom.

A graduate student (also, grad student or grad in American English, postgraduate student or postgrad in British English) is an individual who has completed a bachelor's degree (B.A., B.S./B.Sc., or another flavour) and is pursuing further higher education, with the goal of achieving a master's degree (M.A., M.S./M.Sc., M.Ed., etc.) or doctorate(Ph.D., Ed.D., D.A., D.Sc., D.M.A., Th.D., etc.) In the United States, graduate education can also refer to those pursuing a post-master's Educational Specialist degree or post-master's Certificate of Advanced Study. The term usually does not refer to one in medical school and only occasionally refers to someone in law school or business school.

Admission

Admission to do a research degree in the UK typically requires the sponsorship of a professor. Admission to do a master's degree (based on coursework) depends upon having an undergraduate degree, generally in a related subject.

Life

Postgraduate work at universities in the UK is very intense.

Funding

It is very difficult to obtain funding for postgraduate study in the UK. There are a few scholarships for master's courses, but these are rare and dependent on the course and class of undergraduate degree obtained. Most master's students are self-funded.

Funding is available for some Ph.D. courses. There is more funding available to those in the sciences than in other disciplines.

Costs

The costs for a normal education in the United Kingdom are as follows:

• Primary: No Charge
• Secondary: No Charge
• Further (Secondary) Education in either a sixth form or college: No Charge if under 19 in that particular academic year or on a low income.
• Higher/Tertiary Education (University): A tuition fee per year (around £1,000).

Primary and Secondary education can also be charged for, if a fee-paying (public) school is attended by the child in question.

Public schools in the UK

A public school, in common British usage, is a school which is usually prestigious and historic, which charges fees, does not arbitrarily restrict admissions, and is financed by bodies other than the state, commonly as a private charitable trust. Often but not always they are boarding schools. Confusingly to a non-native English speaker a public school is actually a private school! In British usage, a government-run school (which would be called a 'public school' in other areas, such as the United States ) is called a state school.

Many of the independent schools in the UK do not refer to themselves as public schools . Many choose to use the term independent school. In part this is due to a sense that some 'minor' public schools have many of the social associations and traditions of public schools but without the quality of teaching and extracurricular activities.

The term 'public' (first adopted by Eton) historically refers to the fact that the school was open to the paying public, as opposed to, a religious school that was only open to members of a certain church, and in contrast to private education at home (usually only practical for the very wealthy who could afford tutors).

Public schools played an important role in the development of the Victorian social elite. Under a number of forward-looking headmasters leading public schools developed a curriculum based heavily on classics and physical activity for boys and young men of the upper and upper middle classes. They were schools for the gentlemanly elite of Victorian politics, armed forces and colonial government. Often successful businessmen would send their sons to public school as a mark of participation in the elite (it was Martin Wiener's opposition to this tendency which inspired his 1981 polemic "English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit: 1850-1980", which became a huge influence on the Thatcher government's opposition to old-school gentlemanly Toryism and, by default, a key reason for the recent upsurge of privately-educated pop singers in the UK).

Public schools often relied heavily on the maintenance of discipline by older boys, both to reduce staffing costs and as preparation for military or public service.

While under the best circumstances the Victorian public schools were superb examples of education, the reliance on corporal punishment and the prefect system could also make them awful. The classics-based curriculum was criticised for not providing skills in sciences or engineering.

The public school system influenced the school systems of the British empire to an extent. Recognisably 'public' schools can be found in many Commonwealth countries.

Today most public schools are highly selective on academic grounds, as well as financial grounds (ability to pay high fees) and social grounds (often a family connection to the school is very desirable in admissions).

The Independent School Council (ISC) has a searchable list of independent/public schools in Britain. However, the head teachers of major British independent schools usually belong to the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference (HMC), as distinct from the Secondary Heads' Association, and it is generally considered that any school that is a member of HMC is entitled to call itself a Public School.

Slang peculiar to or originating from public schools

The following list includes some commonly used slang terms, and some historic slang, used at public schools in the UK:

HOME

The British have the smallest homes in Europe

An English man's home is his castle? Well not quite, it's official that British homes are the smallest in Europe, in fact they are downright pokey, with only an average usable floor space of 76m sq. The Italians lead the rest of Europe with the most space - an average of 92m sq per dwelling, over a fifth larger than us Brits enjoy.

Moreover, the gap between the UK and the continent is widening with new homes in France, Germany and Spain getting bigger. On average, newly built homes in France and Germany have over 100m² of usable floor space, while in Spain modern homes have 95m². In Britain, new homes remain the same size as existing properties at 76m².

These figures are more surprising when the types of properties are taken into account as over four-fifths of British households prefer to live in a house. The report reveals that 82 percent of British families live in a house and only 15 percent live in a flat. This is in stark contrast to families on continental Europe where flats are more popular. In Spain, Italy and Germany more than 50 percent of families live in a flat and France is not far behind with 41 percent. Yet almost bizarrely the average British family home has the least usable living space of the countries surveyed.

Glossary

• Arrangement fee - The lender or person who has arranged your mortgage will charge you a fee.
• Bedsit - This is the kind of accommodation many students live in when they cannot afford anything else. It is basically a single room with a bed, cooker, table and sofa. You would normally share the bathroom.
• Bridging loan - A short-term bank loan at a higher rate of interest than normal. Sometimes it is necessary to take out a short-term loan to bridge the gap between buying and selling houses. This is a useful but expensive option when you need money quickly to buy a house, but your own money is still tied up in your previous property. Bear in mind that bridging loans are meant as short-term, stop-gap loans.
• Broker Fee - Amount of money charged to you by the financial advisor or Mortgage broker. It is the fee payable for arranging the mortgage.
• Building insurance - This is a requirement to cover you in the unfortunate event of serious damage to your home.
• Building Society - An organisation set up to lend money to people who wish to buy there own property.
• Bungalow - A house with no upstairs. A single storey house. Not popular with anyone but the old.
• Buy to let - This is where a property can be bought with a view to letting to tenants. Property is bought as an investment.
• Caravan - Everyone in the UK hates caravans - except caravan owners, that is. They are the trailer houses that people attach to their cars every summer, people who live in the north travel south and the people who live in the south travel north, the same for the east and west. The result is all the little British roads become blocked and bring everyone to a complete standstill.
• Chain - This means you are waiting to complete on a sale in order to buy, and the person you are selling to is waiting to complete his or her sale to buy a property, and so on and so on. All it takes is for one link in the chain to break and everybody is affected.
• Collateral - Property or other asset used as a guarantee for a loan.
• Completion - When the transfer of ownership is signed, sealed and delivered, and you get to pick up the keys. This is the best part of the home buying procedure isn't it?
• Conveyancing fee - This is the amount charged by the Solicitor for all the legal work associated with buying your property.
• Council house - A council house is a government built house to help people on lower incomes have a home. They all used to be rented from the government but since Mrs Thatcher, who was against government ownership of anything, most tenants have the option to buy relatively cheaply to help them get on the house ownership ladder. Most council houses are fairly large, for families, but not terribly attractive.
• Council estate - A council estate is a neighbourhood of council houses.
• Estate - This is short for a housing estate.
• Equity - the value of the property which is not mortgaged nor has any other loans against it i.e. the part that belongs to you. For example, you bought your house and you owe the Bank or Building Society £40,000, but the house is valued at £70,000, the difference between the two amounts is £30,000.( this is the equity of the property). Income multiplier - This is used to calculate how much money you can borrow to buy your new home. A single homebuyer can borrow up to three times their annual salary. A couple can borrow up to two and a half times their joint salary. For example, a joint salary of £40,000 X 2.5=£100,000. (This is the amount that can be borrowed).
• Flat - This is the British word for an apartment.
• Foreclosure - A procedure through which property that is mortgaged is sold to satisfy the lenders claim.
• For sale - You will see millions of these signs all around the country with the name and telephone number of an estate agent. Of course, it means that the property is for sale.
• Gazumping - When you buy a new house in the UK, you hope that you won't be galumphed. It's frowned on but it still goes on. When you make an offer on a house and the seller accepts it, they are not allowed to then accept a higher offer from another potential buyer. That would be gazumping. There are moves afoot to make it illegal.
• Housing estate - Basically this is a bunch of similar houses built far too close together and described as "highly desirable" by estate agents!
• Land Registry fees - When you buy a property in the UK you need to register with the local Land Registry so your rights as legal owner are recognised. This is paid to the Land Registry.
• Mobile home - These are like large caravans, but they don't get moved around the country as much. They are an alternative for those who cannot afford to buy a house.
• The Property Ladder - Everyone in the UK wants to get on the property ladder. No one seems to think any longer about buying a house to live in for generations. The whole idea is to start with what you can at least afford and move on within a few years.
• Stamp duty - A 1% tax on the purchase of a property costing more than £60,000; 2% on purchases over £250,000; and 3% on properties worth more than £500,000.
• Subject to contract - A gentleman's agreement that the property is sold. However both the buyer and the seller may pull out of this position without any legal penalty.
• Survey - The surveyor checks the property you are interested in to make sure there are no major problems.
• Vendor - the person selling the property.
• Thatch - There are still many houses in England that have thatch for their roof material, they look very quaint and tend to be called 'Thatched Cottages'. Thatch basically straw and is very picturesque. Amazingly it keeps the rain out pretty well, but is often covered in a fine wire mesh to keep the birds and mice out since they like it too.
• To let - You'll see signs around England with "To Let" on them, outside properties, this means that the property is for rent.
• Valuation fee - This is payable in advance. The mortgagee needs to be sure the property is worth the amount of money you are borrowing, they will arrange for a valuer to look at the property, but you have to pay for the privilege. A valuation is not a survey.

BRITISH CUISINE!

Yes, we do have a wide and varied cuisine in Britain today, no more do we suffer under the image of grey boiled meat! After years of disparagement by various countries (especially the French) Britain now has an enviable culinary reputation. In fact some of the great chefs now come from Britain, I kid you not!

However Britain's culinary expertise is not new! In the past British cooking was amongst the best in the world. Mrs Beeton is still one of the renowned writers of cookery books, her creations have now gained international popularity, years after her death.

Traditional British cuisine is substantial, yet simple and wholesome. We have long believed in four meals a day. Our fare has been influenced by the traditions and tastes from different parts of the British empire: teas from Ceylon and chutney, kedgeree, and mulligatawny soup from India.

A brief history

British cuisine has always been multicultural, a pot pourri of eclectic styles. In ancient times influenced by the Romans and in medieval times the French. When the Frankish Normans invaded, they brought with them the spices of the east: cinnamon, saffron, mace, nutmeg, pepper, ginger. Sugar came to England at that time, and was considered a spice -- rare and expensive. Before the arrival of cane sugars, honey and fruit juices were the only sweeteners. The few Medieval cookery books that remain record dishes that use every spice in the larder, and chefs across Europe saw their task to be the almost alchemical transformation of raw ingredients into something entirely new (for centuries the English aristocracy ate French food) which they felt distinguished them from the peasants.

During Victorian times good old British stodge mixed with exotic spices from all over the Empire. And today despite being part of Europe we've kept up our links with the countries of the former British Empire, now united under the Commonwealth.

One of the benefits of having an empire is that we did learn quite a bit from the colonies. From East Asia (China) we adopted tea (and exported the habit to India), and from India we adopted curry-style spicing, we even developed a line of spicy sauces including ketchup, mint sauce, Worcestershire sauce and devilled sauce to indulge these tastes. Today it would be fair to say that curry has become a national dish.

Among English cakes and pastries, many are tied to the various religious holidays of the year. Hot Cross Buns are eaten on Good Friday, Simnel Cake is for Mothering Sunday, Plum Pudding for Christmas, and Twelfth Night Cake for Epiphany.

Unfortunately a great deal of damage was done to British cuisine during the two world wars. Britain is an island and supplies of many goods became short. The war effort used up goods and services and so less were left over for private people to consume. Ships importing food stuffs had to travel in convoys and so they could make fewer journeys. During the second world war food rationing began in January 1940 and was lifted only gradually after the war.

The British tradition of stews, pies and breads, according to the taste buds of the rest of the world, went into terminal decline. What was best in England was only that which showed the influence of France, and so English food let itself become a gastronomic joke and the French art of Nouvelle Cuisine was adopted.

Today

In the late 1980's, British cuisine started to look for a new direction. Disenchanted with the overblown (and under-nourished) Nouvelle Cuisine, chefs began to look a little closer to home for inspiration. Calling on a rich (and largely ignored) tradition, and utilising many diverse and interesting ingredients, the basis was formed for what is now known as modern British food. Game has enjoyed a resurgence in popularity although it always had a central role in the British diet, which reflects both the abundant richness of the forests and streams and an old aristocratic prejudice against butchered meats.

In London especially, one can not only experiment with the best of British, but the best of the world as there are many distinct ethnic cuisines to sample, Chinese, Indian, Italian and Greek restaurants are amongst the most popular.

Although some traditional dishes such as roast beef and Yorkshire pudding, Cornish pasties, steak and kidney pie, bread and butter pudding, treacle tart, spotted dick or fish and chips, remain popular, there has been a significant shift in eating habits in Britain. Rice and pasta have accounted for the decrease in potato consumption and the consumption of meat has also fallen. Vegetable and salad oils have largely replaced the use of butter.

Roast beef is still the national culinary pride. It is called a "joint," and is served at midday on Sunday with roasted potatoes, Yorkshire pudding, two vegetables, a good strong horseradish, gravy, and mustard.

Today there is more emphasis on fine, fresh ingredients in the better restaurants and markets in the UK offer food items from all over the world. Salmon, Dover sole, exotic fruit, Norwegian prawns and New Zealand lamb are choice items. Wild fowl and game are other specialties on offer.

In fact fish is still important to the English diet, we are after all an island surrounded by some of the richest fishing areas of the world. Many species swim in the cold offshore waters: sole, haddock, hake, plaice, cod (the most popular choice for fish and chips), turbot, halibut, mullet and John Dory. Oily fishes also abound (mackerel, pilchards, and herring) as do crustaceans like lobster and oysters. Eel, also common, is cooked into a wonderful pie with lemon, parsley, and shallots, all topped with puff pastry.

Regional Specialities

Despite recent setbacks beef is still big industry in England, and the Scottish Aberdeen Angus is one of our most famous beef-producing breeds. Dairy cattle are also farmed extensively -- England is famous for its creams and butters and for its sturdy and delicious cheeses: Stilton, Cheshire and its rare cousin blue Cheshire, double Gloucester, red Leicester, sage Derby, and of course cheddar.

Some of our more interesting dishes include:

Beefsteak, Oyster, and Kidney Pudding:- Oysters may seem unlikely in this meat pudding, but their great abundance in the Victorian age and earlier eras inspired cooks to find ways to incorporate them creatively in many different recipes. This steamed pudding combines the meats with mushrooms, onions, tomatoes, and Worcestershire, then wraps the whole in a suet pastry.

Cock-a-Leekie:- This Scottish specialty can be classified as a soup or a stew. It combines beef, chicken, leeks, and prunes to unusual and spectacular ends.

Crown Roast Lamb:- The crown roast encircles a stuffing of apples, bread crumbs, onion, celery, and lemon.

Eccles Cake:- Puff pastry stuffed with a spicy currant filling.

Hasty Pudding:- A simple and quick (thus the name) steamed pudding of milk, flour, butter, eggs, and cinnamon.

Irish Stew:- An Irish stew always has a common base of lamb, potatoes, and onion. It could contain any number of other ingredients, depending on the cook.

Likky Pie Leeks:- pork, and cream baked in puff pastry.

Mincemeat:- Beef suet is used to bind chopped nuts, apples, spices, brown sugar, and brandy into a filling for pies or pasties - not to be confused with minced meat!.

Mulligatawny Soup:- What this soup is depends on who is cooking it. Originally a south Indian dish (the name means pepper water in tamil), it has been adopted and extensively adapted by the British. Mulligatawny contains chicken or meat or vegetable stock mixed with yoghurt or cheese or coconut milk and is seasoned with curry and various other spices. It is sometimes served with a separate bowl of rice.

Syllabub:- In the seventeenth century, a milkmaid would send a stream of new, warm milk directly from a cow into a bowl of spiced cider or ale. A light curd would form on top with a lovely whey underneath. This, according to Elizabeth David, was the original syllabub. Today's syllabub is more solid (its origins can also be traced to the seventeenth century, albeit to the upper classes) and mixes sherry and/or brandy, sugar, lemon, nutmeg, and double cream into a custard-like dessert or an eggnog-like beverage, depending upon the cook.

Trifle:- Layers of alcohol-soaked sponge cake alternate with fruit, custard and whipped cream.

Welsh Faggots:- Pig's liver is made into meatballs with onion, beef suet, bread crumbs, and sometimes a chopped apple. Faggots used to be made to use up the odd parts of a pig after it had been slaughtered.

Welsh Rabbit (or Rarebit):- Cheese is grated and melted with milk or ale. Pepper, salt, butter, and mustard are then added. The mix is spread over toast and baked until "the cheese bubbles and becomes brown in appetizing-looking splashes".

Westmoreland Pepper Cake:- Fruitcake that gets a distinctive kick from lots of black pepper. Other ingredients include honey, cloves, ginger, and walnuts.

Pies, Pudding, Buns and Cakes

Pies and puddings are related phenomena in British culinary history. Originally, both solved the problem of preparing dinners made with less expensive meats. Pies covered a stew or other ingredients with a crust; puddings were made from butcher's scraps tucked into a sheep's stomach, then steamed or boiled. Pies have remained pies, although, in addition to savoury pies, there now exist sweet variations, which tend to have two crusts or a bottom crust only.

Pie crusts can be made from a short dough or puff pastry. Snacks and bar food (Britain's fifth food group) are often in pie form: pasties (pronounced with a short "a" like "had") are filled turnovers.

Over time, however, in a confusing development, pudding has become a more general term for a sweet or savoury steamed mixture -- as well as a word that describes desserts in general. Black pudding, a stomach stuffed with pig's blood, is of an ancient variety. Also typical is plum pudding, a Christmas treat consisting of a steamed cake of beef suet (the white fat around the kidney and loins) and dried and candied fruits flamed with cognac. And, of course, one can't forget rice pudding.

Amongst cakes, buns and pastries local delicacies include Bath Buns, Chelsea Buns, Eccles Cakes, and Banbury Cakes.

The Great Britain Breakfast

"And then to breakfast, with what appetite you have". Shakespeare.

The great British breakfast is famous (or notorious) throughout the world! Actually nowadays it is a bit of a myth, today many British people are more likely to have a bowl of cornflakes or a cup of coffee with a cigarette than to indulge in the wonders of this feast!

However that is not to say that the traditional breakfast is dead, far from it, it's just not often eaten every day of the week. Speaking as a true Brit I occasionally push the boat out and treat myself to the full Monty (not to be confused with the film of the same name).

The typical English breakfast is a 19th century invention, when the majority of English people adopted the copious meal of porridge, fish, bacon and eggs, toast and marmalade, that has now appeared on English breakfast tables for 100 years.

The annual consumption in the United Kingdom is 450,000 tonnes of bacon, 5,000 tonnes of sausages and millions of eggs, so you can see the Great British Breakfast is very much alive and well. It has retained its popularity as one of the country's favourite meals, and survived a whole series of eating trends and food fads.

Mrs Beeton would have recommended a large list of foods for breakfast such as, bread, rolls, toast, toasted teacakes, Sally Lunns; eggs cooked in various ways; fish, baked halibut steaks, fried whiting, broiled fresh herrings, soused herrings, fishcakes, broiled kippers, 'Findon' haddock, sprats fried in butter, fish kedgeree, fried salmon, salmon pie, baked lobster, codfish pie, cod's steak, croquettes of cod's roe, herrings stuffed with fish. Fruit such as stewed figs, stewed prunes, and fresh fruits in season. Game and pheasant legs, brawn, devilled drumsticks, and meat dishes both hot and cold, such as collared tongue, kidneys on toast, sausages with fried bread, pig's cheek, Melton pork pie, ham, galantine, spiced brisket, pressed beef...

So what does the great British breakfast consist of nowadays?

Simpsons in the Strand, a well know (and expensive) restaurant, serves breakfast daily. Their full English breakfast consists of the following:

The GREAT BRITISH BREAKFAST at £13.95 includes:- Toast with jam or marmalade, pastries, fresh orange juice, freshly brewed coffee, a choice of cereals, porridge, stewed fruit or half a grapefruit, The Simpson’s Cumberland sausage, scrambled egg, streaky and back bacon, black pudding, grilled mushrooms and tomato and a daily newspaper (not for consumption).

In addition to the GREAT BRITISH BREAKFAST, for serious breakfast eaters, Simpson's offers THE TEN DEADLY SINS - at £15.95 per person this includes: Toast with jam or marmalade, pastries, fresh orange juice, freshly brewed coffee Choice of cereals, porridge, stewed fruit or half a grapefruit The Simpson’s Cumberland sausage, fried egg, streaky and back bacon, black pudding, lamb’s kidneys, fried bread, liver, bubble & squeak, baked beans, grilled mushrooms and tomato.

Guests may also choose from an à la carte selection of classic breakfast dishes such as: Smoked Haddock Kedgeree; Poached Finan Haddock; Quail’s eggs with haddock; Smoked Salmon with Scrambled Eggs; Grilled sirloin steak with grilled mushrooms and tomato and welsh rarebit. There is also a selection of plain, cheese, bacon, herb, mushroom and smoked salmon omelettes.

Fish and Chips

Fish and chips is the traditional take-away food of England, long before McDonalds we had the fish and chip shop. Fresh cod is the most common fish for our traditional fish and chips, other types of fish used include haddock, huss, and plaice.

The fresh fish is dipped in flour and then dipped in batter and deep fried, it is then served with chips (fresh not frozen) and usually you will be asked if you want salt and vinegar added. Sometimes people will order curry sauce (yellow sauce that tastes nothing like real curry), mushy peas (well it's green anyway) or pickled eggs (yes pickled).

Traditionally fish and chips were served up wrapped in old newspaper. Nowadays (thanks to hygiene laws) they are wrapped in greaseproof paper and sometimes paper that has been specially printed to look like newspaper. You often get a small wooden or plastic fork to eat them with too, although it is quite ok to use your fingers.

British Cheese

Cheese is made from the curdled milk of various animals: most commonly cows but often goats, sheep and even reindeer, and buffalo. Rennet is often used to induce milk to coagulate, although some cheeses are curdled with acids like vinegar or lemon juice or with extracts of vegetable rennet.

Britain started producing cheese thousands of years ago. However, it was in Roman times that the cheese-making process was originally honed and the techniques developed. In the Middle Ages, the gauntlet was passed to the monasteries that flourished following the Norman invasion. It is to these innovative monks that we are indebted for so many of the now classic types of cheese that are produced in Britain.

The tradition of making cheese nearly died out during WWII, when due to rationing only one type of cheese could be manufactured - the unappealingly named 'National Cheese'. The discovery and revival of old recipes and the development of new types of cheese has seen the British cheese industry flourish in recent years and diversify in a way not seen since the 17^th century.

There are now over 450 different cheeses in the UK, these are just a few of the most popular (and my favourite) ones. Often eaten with specially made savoury biscuits and a glass of wine or port.

A - Z of British Cheese

Brodick Blue - A ewes milk blue cheese from Brodick in Scotland.

Caerphilly - The best known Welsh cheese. A fresh, white, mild cheese with a delicate, slightly salty and lightly acidic flavour.

Cheddar - Probably the best known British cheese. A creamy cheese which comes in different strengths depending on its age from Mild to Mature. Cheddar dates back to the 15^th century when it was stored in the Cheddar Gorge caves of Somerset.

Cheshire - A slightly crumbly and silky texture with a full-bodied, fresh flavour. There is a white and a coloured Cheshire. Britain's oldest cheese, dating back to the 11^th century. It can claim a mention in the Doomsday Book and boast to have been a firm favourite at the court of Elizabeth I.

Cornish Yarg - A semi-hard cheese that is creamy and slightly crumbly at the core. It has a young, fresh, slightly tangy taste.

Crowdie - A soft fresh Scottish cheese. Originally made using milk left after the cream has separated naturally. Plain or flavoured with peppercorns, garlic or herbs.

Derby - A smooth, mellow texture with a quite mild, buttery flavour.

Double Gloucester - A smooth, buttery texture with a clean, creamy, mellow flavour. Famous for its role in the annual cheese-rolling contest.

Dovedale - A creamy soft, mild blue cheese.

Lancashire - A full-bodied flavour that is slightly salted with a creamy but faintly crumbly texture.

Red Leicester - A rich, orangey coloured cheese whose flaky and slightly open texture plays host to a distinctive mellow flavour.

Sage Derby - A green veined, semi-hard cheese with a delightful, mild sage flavour.

Shropshire Blue - Made in a similar way to Stilton, it is a blue veined, soft, orange coloured cheese with a sharp, strong, slightly tangy flavour that takes between six and eight weeks to mature.

Stilton - Known as the 'King of English Cheeses'. A blue veined cheese with smooth and creamy texture it has a complex, slightly acidic flavour. It originated near Melton Mowbray at the beginning of the 18^th century.

Village Green Goat - A popular Cornish goat's cheese with a green wax coating, from whence it gets its name, surrounding a great tasting hard cheese.

Wensleydale - A moist, crumbly and flaky textured cheese with a mild and slightly sweet flavour. It can be traced back to the 12^th century when it was made in Yorkshire by the monks at Jervaulx Abbey.

White Stilton - A mild, crumbly cheese with a delicious tangy flavour. It is younger than its blue cousin and also comes blended with apricots or cranberries.

FORNAL AND INFORMAL GREETINGS AND INTRODUCTION

First meeting

Subsequent meetings

!Note - on first meetings it's nice to meet you, for subsequent meetings it's nice to see you.

SHOPS

The small shop

Britain was once known as a nation of shop keeper, however the small shop in the UK is almost a thing of the past. Many villages have lost their local corner shop or post office because of competition from the supermarkets and out- of-town shopping centres.

Small shops are often run by families operating as sole traders or partnerships. They usually specialise in a small range of goods, e.g. butchers, tailors, greengrocers, newsagents etc.

Prices are often higher in these shops, as they cannot afford to buy in large quantities, and the range of goods on offer is often small. However there tends to be a friendlier atmosphere and personal service. Some small shops even deliver to the home, newsagents especially will deliver a newspaper to the door.

Supermarket

A supermarket must by definition have a minimum selling area of 186m² and at least 3 check outs. They are often situated on the edge of a town by a main road or motorway and provide a large car park for customers.

They are mostly self-service and sell a range of goods including groceries, clothing, electrical goods etc, however their main selling items are food and drink.

A supermarket is organised into aisles and goods are displayed on shelves. Some supermarkets have counters where fresh produce is displayed, for example a cheese counter or meat or fish counter.

Prices are generally low and there tends to be a large variety. Tescos, Sainsburys and Asda are three of the largest supermarkets in the UK. One of the new concepts in supermarkets is the customer loyalty card and banking facilities. A customer loyalty card allows the customer to collect reward points for every pound they spend, these points can then be redeemed for money off vouchers.

Department stores

A department store sells a very wide range of goods, they can be described as a collection of shops under one roof, but under the control of one firm.

They usually occupy large buildings in expensive city centre or out-of-town shopping sites. Each store is divided into a number of departments and each of these departments specialises in a particular type of product or service. For example: electrical goods, carpets, clothing, furniture etc. The proliferation of supermarkets has led to problems with distribution of goods, in the UK there are thousands of lorries on the road every day, just to deliver fresh produce to the supermarkets.

The most famous department store in the UK is probably Harrods, in addition House of Fraser, Marks and Spencers and Debenhams are three of the largest department stores in the UK. They don't just sell goods either, all of these department stores offer customer loyalty cards, in store credit cards and finance and insurance facilities too.

Out of town Shopping Centres

Catering purely to people with cars are the out of town shopping centres. Hated by many people and blamed for the run down state of many city centres they are still extremely popular.

Fair Trade

A phenomenon that I am much more in favour of is the growing fair trade movement in the UK. Fair trade providing fair wages and good employment opportunities to economically disadvantaged artisans and farmers worldwide. By buying direct from farmers at better prices, helping to strengthen their organisations and marketing their produce directly through their own one world shops and catalogues, the fair trade charities offered consumers the opportunity to buy products which were bought on the basis of a fair trade.

In order to co-ordinate the work of the national initiatives and run the monitoring programmes more efficiently, an umbrella body, Fairtrade Labelling Organisations (FLO) International, was set up in April 1997. One of its aims is to see the introduction of a single international Fairtrade label. The national initiatives retain responsibility for marketing and promoting Fairtrade in their respective countries.

BRITISH WORK CULTURE

The working day

The usual working day starts at 9am and finishes by 5pm. Most people work a five-day week. The working week is, on average, the longest of any country in Europe. In 1998 a new law was passed saying that workers do not have to work more than 48 hours a week if they don't want to. However, about 22% of British workers do work more than a 48-hour a week. However, on the whole everyone is out of the office early on Fridays and no one would dream of coming to work on Saturdays.

British employers must give their workers four weeks paid holiday a year.

Tea Break

Frequent tea breaks are the bane of office productivity.

One strange custom requires you to ask everyone around whether they'd like tea or coffee whenever you go to get some for yourself. Often people will try and wait each other out so that they can avoid this chore.

The tea break is so famous there is even a song about it: