QUESTIONS - GRAMMAR 2005

Look, see, watch

'Look', 'see' and 'watch' seem very similar, they all talk about different ways of using your eyes. However, there are two very important differences. It depends on how you intend to look or watch and how intense the looking is. When we say 'see' we are normally talking about things we can't avoid I opened the curtains and saw some birds outside - I didn't intend to see them, it just happened. However, when we use the verb 'look', we're talking about seeing something with an intention. This morning I looked at the newspaper – I intended to see the newspaper. When we watch something, we intend to look at it but we're also looking at it quite intensely, usually because it's moving. I watched the bus go through the traffic lights I watched the movie We want to see it, we're looking at it intensely and it's normally moving. When we use verbs of the senses, and this group, 'look', 'see' and 'watch' are verbs of visual sense, there's usually a difference between intention and non-intention: I heard the radio - I didn't intend to, it just happened I listened to the radio - I switched it on to find my favourite programme. I felt the wind on my face - I didn't intend to feel this, it just happened I touched the fabric - I intended to feel the fabric. It's important when you find these verbs of the senses to gather them together and try to find the differences between them. Remember that when you look at words which seem to be similar it's important to find out exactly the differences between them because basically you can't really use them interchangeably. Remember: 'SEE' – you didn't really intend to, it just happened 'LOOK' – you intended to do it 'WATCH' – you intended to do it and you were looking intensely, usually because it was moving.

At which / for which / of which / in which

The prepositions are "in which", "at which", "of which", "for which" – which one do we choose? “IN” Basically, our choice of preposition is governed by the verb that relates to it. So, for example, if we take the phrase “in which” - we might say: That’s the film in which I’m interested That’s the film I’m interested in It’s the verb “interested” that tells us we need to use the preposition “IN”. “AT” Similarly, with “at which” – That’s the university at which I studied That’s the university which I studied at. It’s the verb “study” that tells us we need to use the preposition “AT”. However, in written English, we try to avoid putting the preposition at the end of the sentence. We can say That’s the film I’m interested in. That’s the university which I studied at. That’s a song I’ve heard of. But when were writing formal English, we try to take that preposition and put it into the middle of the sentence. This is where we need to use the relative pronoun "which" – That’s the university I studied at. That’s the university at which I studied. That’s the film I’m interested in. That’s the film in which I’m interested. The important thing to remember is this is found in very formal written English and when we’re speaking we would normally put the preposition at the end of the sentence. So it’s not really a big problem. However, if you want to make your written language very formal then this is where you need to consider putting the preposition into the middle of the sentence before the relative pronoun.

Perhaps / Maybe / Possibly

Well, all of those words mean more or less the same thing. They all show that something is possible, or might be true. However, the real difference in meaning between them is when we use them and in what context. One is informal, another is neutral and another one is formal. So 'maybe' is a rather informal word. For example 'Maybe we'll skip school today" 'Are you going to Anna's party?' 'Hmmm... maybe' Getting to the word 'perhaps'... 'Perhaps' is more neutral and polite. It's just a neutral way of expressing possibility. For example: 'There were 200, perhaps 250, people at the theatre' 'Perhaps we should start again' Now moving on to 'possibly'... 'Possibly' sounds a bit more formal than either maybe or perhaps, and especially in agreement or disagreement. For example, in answer to the question 'Do you think he will apply for the job?' the answer 'Hmm. Possibly, possibly not' 'He may possibly decide to apply for the job' So, I think that we could sum it up that largely - not every time, but largely - there's a difference in register: 'maybe' is quite informal, 'perhaps' is neutral, and 'possibly' would be a little bit formal.

Nor I you

NOR I YOU and ELLIPSES I do need to say that it sounds as if somebody has been watching a very old English film, because the phrase “nor I you” isn’t really something you would hear nowadays in British English. However, the question does give us a very clear example of something which is very common in English. It’s an example of ellipses. Ellipse is missing out what you, the speaker and the listener, already know. In the example, we have: “I will never forget you” and “nor I you” == > The person who is answering really means “nor will I ever forget you” However, both the listener and the speaker know that this information is shared so they don’t need to say it. You can find much more common examples of ellipses in everyday language, for example, in the sentence: “I drove to work, and than I parked the car in the car park” == > you wouldn’t really expect to hear “I” said twice. So normally you would hear “I drove to work and parked in the car park”. We miss out the second “I” because we already know that it’s there. “I listen to the news on the radio and I listened to the drama programme on the radio” == > You would normally say “I listened to the news and the drama programme on the radio”. This gives us all of the new information, but it misses out the things which we know already. We can think of lots of other examples if we can think of the example of love and forgetting, you may hear in a film, for example “I will always love you”. And the person who’s listening may say “and I you” What they mean is, “and I will always love you”. But they don’t need to repeat the words which the other speaker has already said. Ellipses also feature in sentences where we know exactly what the speaker is saying, and they may drop off a final word. So for example: “he is as tall as I am” == > You may actually hear someone say “he is as tall as I”. We don’t need the “am” as it doesn’t add any new information. We try to be as economical as possible when we speak, using only the words which will give the listener the information which he or she needs. Therefore, if we’re repeating information or adding in extra words which don’t give any more information, we tend to drop them out. This is what ellipses are. One important thing to remember, however, is that sometimes, in our examples, ellipses can sound a little old fashioned. So in our example “he is as tall as I” normally in British English you would hear, these days “he’s as tall as me”. However, grammatically, “he is as tall as I” is the more correct. And in the example “I will never forget you”…“nor I you” - this is something you’re actually unlikely to hear these days in British English. Probably the person answering would say “me neither”. However, grammatically, “nor I you” is the more correct.

"Person" - "People"

Most nouns in English are made plural by putting and "-s" at the end girl – girls boy – boys But some nouns have irregular plurals child – children tooth - teeth mouse - mice person - people And "person" is one of those nouns that has an irregular plural. "People" is in fact the plural form of "person". So for example we talk about one person and two people. many people there were a lot of people at the concert Sometimes if you're listening to the news, you may hear news reports talking about "persons". "Persons" is normally a more formal use, a more formal plural form. 4 persons were injured in the accident, or police are looking for 5 persons. It gets slightly more complicated when you find the word "peoples". "People" can be used to mean a nationality – all of the people of one country – the people of Cuba And when you're talking about a group of nationalities you may find the word "peoples". So that's another slightly more complicated and not so common use of the word "peoples". the peoples of South America Finally you may find the word "person" attached to a number. a two-person car a three-person room This is where "peoples" is being used to describe the noun. "2 – person" is the adjective describing 'car' and as you know we don't put an 's' on an adjective. a two-week holiday == > not a 'two-weeks holiday' a three-year course == > not 'a three-years course' two-person car So to sum up, normally you find "people" as the plural form of "person" – one person, three people. Sometimes you'll find "people" used to describe the nationality so you'll find "peoples" to describe different nationalities and sometimes you'll find the word "persons" in more formal styles of writing or in signs for example.

I will meet you / I will meet with you

I will meet you There is a difference: "I will meet you" or "I'll meet you", could mean all kinds of things. It could mean that "we're going to have a meeting", and "we're going to do some work together"; but it could simply mean that's where we're going to see each other, and we're going to go and do something else afterwards. I will meet with you 'I will meet with you' does imply a number of things it implies that it's quite formal it implies that it's very professional reasons it implies that somehow, we're going to collaborate on something ... and that it will go on for quite a long time. Which is the more common expression? "I'll meet you" is much more common. Personally, I love these new expression, and I use 'I'll meet with you' at every opportunity. However conservative people very often dislike, and disapprove of, these new expressions which come into the language - and so I tend to be a little bit careful about who I'm talking to when I use expressions like this. I love it! Are there any other expressions that mean more or less the same thing? Are there any more colloquial expressions that people use to meet up with somebody else, with their friends? Well, it's not to meet up with their friends, but I think it's relevant. We often say 'I'll meet you halfway'. And if you meet somebody halfway, it's got nothing to do with actually meeting, it's got to do with negotiating. So, you want something, and I want something else - then we can either fall out and do nothing, or we can both compromise and find a solution which involves both of us getting some of what we want, and not getting some of what we want - and in that case, what we talk about is meeting somebody halfway: 'I'll meet you halfway'. "To meet halfway" = incontrarsi a metà strada 'Meeting up' / 'meet up' Of course, we talk about "meeting up", and that's a very common expression: in fact it's what we call a phrasal verb, but you can meet up, or you can meet up with somebody - that's always for social reasons and it involves getting together, usually then to do something else, and it may involve not two people, but a large group of people. So, at the end of an evening of doing something socially, somebody might say ‘when are we going to meet up again’? To meet up again = rivederci To "hook up" If you "hook up with somebody" you meet them. It's very colloquial. Usually young professional people use this, people in their twenties, professional people, who lead a very busy life. They don't have very much time to spend with anyone, and they say 'oh, I'll hook up with you sometime' - meaning getting into contact for a quick conversation which has some definite purpose. They will then move on and hook up with somebody else. To get in touch We often use the expression 'to get in touch with someone'. Now, that very often doesn't involve touching, or even seeing. It's very often a letter, or an e-mail, or a phone call, or a text message - but that has the sense of contacting somebody who you haven't had contact with for quite some time. Christmas in this part of the world of course is where we tend to get in touch with people that we don't see regularly and that just means sending them a card and it's really to let them know that we're still there - and thinking of them.

The future seen from the past is going to > was going to I'm going to leave Britain to start a new life in Canada. > When I heard that she was going to leave Britain to start a new life in Canada, I was quite upset. present progressive > past progressive We're meeting Jane outside the town hall at three o' clock. > We left school before the classes were over because we were meeting Jane outside the town hall at three o' clock. will > would If I play my CDs while I'm working, it won't disturb you, will it? > I didn't think my music would disturb her, but it did. future progressive: will + be + verb-ing > would + be + verb-ing Don't phone them now, they'll be having supper. I didn't want to phone them at that time because I thought they would be having supper. future perfect: will have + past participle > would have + past participle I'll have finished writing up this report by noon, so we will be able to watch the tennis this afternoon. I thought I would have finished that report by noon and then we could have watched the tennis, but it took longer than expected is to be > was to be is about to > was about to The factory is to be closed down and all the work (is to be) transferred to Germany. I was on holiday in Greece when I heard that the factory was to be closed down. Please take your seats, ladies and gentlemen. The performance is about to begin. We weren't able to finish our drinks. We had to take our seats as the performance was about to begin.

To-infinitive or bare infinitive

To-infinitive or bare infinitive When we use it without an infinitive it sometimes sounds more informal. Examples: Could you help me to look for my car keys? I can't find them anywhere. Could you help me look for my car keys? I can't find them anywhere. Would you like to help to cook dinner tonight? It's late and I'm feeling tired. Would you like to help cook dinner tonight? It's late and I'm feeling tired. There are one or two other structures where to-infinitive and the bare infinitive are both possible. Expressions with do or did, such as what I've done or all I did can follow either pattern. Examples: I hate shopping so what I've done is (to) order a new computer over the Internet. All I did was (to) suggest that she should lend him no more money. I didn't insist on it. When two infinitive structures are connected by and, or or, except or but and than or as, it is normal practice to omit to in the second clause. Examples: I would like you to tidy the house and (to) wash the dishes before I get home. Would you prefer to have a snack now or (to) wait until later before we eat? I could find nothing to do this afternoon, except read my book. My son does nothing but watch TV when he gets home from school. It's quicker to bike to the station rather than take the car. I have to fix breakfast for everybody as well as take the children to school before I can leave for work. Bare infinitive only Generally speaking, bare infinitive structures are much less common than to-infinitive structures, but after certain verbs they are necessary. We use the infinitive without to after modal auxiliary verbs will, shall, would, could, can (but not be able to), may, might, must (but not have to), should (but not ought to), and needn't, (but not need to, which behaves like a normal verb). Examples: I can't agree with you on this, though I would like to be able to help you. You must finish your own work before you go out, but you don't have to help your sister. It will be hot and sunny today so you should put on plenty of sunscreen and you ought to wear a hat. He needn't take time off work, but he needs to rest in the evenings and get a good night's sleep before he sets off on the new expedition. After the object after certain verbs, such as hear, see, make, let, there is no to. Examples: I saw him pour the medicine down the loo and I heard him laugh to himself. I cannot make you take this medication, I can only ask you to take it. I can't let you go to bed hungry. You must let me prepare you some supper. After verbal idioms would rather and had better there is no to. Examples: I'd rather swim in the pool than go down to the beach. Geoffrey has just driven up in his car. You'd better see what he wants. All of these, however, represent exceptions to the general rule. Most infinitive structures begin with to. Examples: I decided to leave work early. I intended to be home before six. And I had arranged to play tennis with Joan in the evening.

Tag questions

Tag questions A tag question is a question we can add to the end of a statement. The basic rules for forming the two-word tag questions are as follows: * the subject in the statement matches the subject in the tag * the auxiliary verb or verb to be in the statement matches the verb used in the tag * if the statement is positive, the tag is usually negative and vice versa. Examples: You've posted my letters, haven't you? You won't forget to check my emails, will you? You're sad that I'm going, aren't you? You aren't going to cry when I leave, are you? When present and past simple tenses appear in positive statements, normally no auxiliary verb is used, but we use the auxiliaries does, do or did in the tag. In negative statements in the present or past simple, the auxiliaries doesn't, don't or didn't are, of course, already present. Examples: You play tennis on Thursdays usually, don't you? And Jack plays with you, doesn't he? You didn't play last Thursday, did you? When we use the there is structure, there is reflected in the tag. Examples: There's nothing wrong, is there? There weren't any problems when you talked to Jack, were there? Something / nobody /etc When no one, somebody, something, etc is the subject in the statement, we use it in the tag to refer to something or nothing and they in the tag to refer to e.g. someone or nobody: Examples: Something happened at Jack's house, didn't it? No one phoned, did they? Somebody wanted to borrow Jack's bike, didn't they? Who was it? When to use tag questions We use tag questions, to check information or to ask for agreement. If we use a rising intonation in the tag, we do not know or are not quite sure of the answer. If we use a falling intonation in the tag, we are seeking the agreement of the person we are talking to. We can reply to tag questions either with simple yes/no answers (negative tags normally expect a yes answer and positive tags normally expect a no answer) or by using yes/no + auxiliary verb. In these examples, use a rising intonation in the tag. It is a genuine question. You are not sure what the answer will be. Example: You haven't seen my tennis shoes, have you? ~ No, I'm sorry. I haven't. I couldn't borrow yours by any chance, could I? ~ No. They wouldn't fit you. In these examples, use a falling intonation in the tag. You are simply seeking agreement. Examples: It's been a lovely day today, hasn't it? ~ Yes, it has. Gorgeous. It was a lovely wedding, wasn't it? ~ Wonderful! I thought Sue looking stunning in her wedding dress, didn't she? ~ Yes, she did. Absolutely stunning. It's a shame the day is over, isn't it? ~ Yes, it is. Tag questions - special features positive statement - positive tag We sometimes use a positive tag with a positive statement when we want to express surprise or particular interest. Examples: I shall be staying at my favourite hotel - the five-star hotel in Windsor. ~ Oh, you've stayed there before, have you? And I'm having supper there with the Australian tennis ace, Lleyton Hewitt. ~ Oh, so you know Lleyton Hewitt, do you? imperative sentences and let's After imperatives, we sometimes add will you? or won't you? when we want people to follow our advice. Examples: Don't stay there long, will you? And do take care, won't you? After let's we sometimes add shall we? when we are making a suggestion: Example: Let's have buttered scones with strawberry jam for tea, shall we? Omission of pronoun subject and auxiliary verb In very informal speech, we sometimes leave out pronoun subjects, auxiliary verbs and verb to be in the statement. Examples: Awful weather, isn't it? (= It's awful weather, isn't it?) Keeping well, are you? (=You're keeping well, are you?) Nobody at home, is there? (=There's nobody at home, is there?)

Would or used to?

used to: questions and negative forms Used to is used to describe past habits or long-lasting actions and situations which are now finished. Examples: People used to think the sun revolved around the earth. I used to take size 12, but now I take size 14 For questions and negative forms, two forms of the verb are used - either the normal infinitive pattern after did (more common), or the past form used (less common): Examples: When you were a kid, did you use to think the sun revolved around the earth? When you were a kid, did you used to think the sun revolved around the earth? I didn't use to take such a large dress size, but now I do. I didn't used to take such a large dress size, but now I do. In a more formal style, questions and negatives are possible without do, following the pattern of a modal auxiliary verb, although these forms are less often used: Examples: I used not to like contemporary dance, but now I do. Used you to play the organ in church before you became a monk? in 1996/last month etc. - usually/frequently/often etc. When we use used to, we are describing things that happened at an earlier stage in our lives which are no longer in place as circumstances have changed. Note that if we want simply to refer to what happened in the past, we normally use the simple past tense, often with an adverbial time phrase. Examples: From 1995 to 1998 I lived in that house and then I emigrated to Australia. I returned to Britain two years ago and last year I bought this house in Bath. Note that when we want to talk about present habits and states, we use the present simple tense, often with an adverb of frequency Examples: I usually do my homework immediately after supper. I occasionally smoke cigars, but never cigarettes. I normally use public transport in London, but I sometimes drive in despite the congestion charge. would or used to? When we are telling a story and recollecting an event from long ago, we often prefer to use would to describe repeated behaviour in the past, although both would and used to are possible. Example: Do you remember what we used to get up to when we were teenagers? How I would wait for you nearly every afternoon after school and then we would stroll home together across the park, holding hands, and you would feed the ducks on the pond while I had a cigarette? Note that would in this sense describes past events and actions. It cannot be used to refer to past states. To describe past states we can only use used to. Examples: I used to live in that house over there. (NOT: I would live in that house over there.) I used to own a 1966 Silver Cloud Rolls Royce. (NOT I would own a 1966 Silver Cloud Rolls Royce.) I used sometimes to drive to work in it. I would sometimes drive to work in it.

Get

get + past participle When we use the get construction, it sometimes makes what we are saying more immediate. Examples: He married a girl from Texas. (Here the question is who not when, and got married to would be more clumsy) We got married on New Year's Day. (Here we are focusing on the day itself) Can you get this done by Friday? ~ Hm. This sounds quite urgent. No problem. Can you do this by Friday? ~ Hm. This doesn't sound too urgent. That should be OK. We frequently use get with..: engaged/married/divorced/lost/dressed/changed/washed: Examples: When are you going to get dressed? You'll be late for school. I'm just going to get changed. Will you wait for me? Don't get lost on the mountains. Make sure you've got a detailed map and a compass. They went out together for about three months and then they got engaged. Note that although we could substitute dress or change for get dressed and get changed in the above examples, we would have to say lose yourselves as an alternative to get lost. There is no alternative for get engaged. get + past participle = be + past participle To make passive structures in informal spoken English, we sometime use get instead of be with the past participle: Examples: Our cat got run over last Friday when it was trying to cross the road. (= was run over) I know you'll get hurt if you carry on with this relationship. (= be hurt) I got caught doing 120 mph on the M1 and now I've got to go to court. (= was caught) I don't get paid very much for delivering newspapers. (= am not paid) get + object + past participle In informal spoken English, when we are talking about having things done for us by others, we sometimes prefer to say get something done instead of have something done: Examples: When are you going to get your car insured? ~ As soon as I can afford it! David is getting his head shaved, just like all the other footballers. Why don't you get your winter coat dry-cleaned? It will look like new Remember to get your passport renewed in time - don't leave it until just before you go!

Quite

quite = completely When it is used for emphasis with adjectives that cannot be graded, quite means completely. The colour adjective black, for example cannot be graded. Things can't be more black or less black. They are just black. So, if we put this into context and look at some more examples of quite with ungradable adjectives, we may find: Examples: There's no trace of red in her hair - it's quite black. I see no hope - the future looks quite black to me. It's quite impossible to learn twenty new items of vocabulary each day. His performance on stage was quite amazing - we were just spellbound for three hours! Are you quite sure? I think you're quite wrong about this. not quite = not completely When not is used with quite, it always means not exactly or not completely. Examples: Shall we go? ~ I'm not quite ready. Do you like this one? ~ It's not quite the colour I wanted. Have you finished that book on Che Guevara yet? ~ Not quite. quite = exactly / I agree Quite can be used in an emphatic way as a one-word response, meaning exactly or I completely agree. Examples: I always knew their marriage would never last. ~ Quite! / Exactly! / So did I! If you stay quite still, those animals won't harm you. ~ Quite! / That's absolutely right. quite = fairly / rather If we are using quite with an adjective that is gradable, it means fairly or rather. The adjective easy, for example, is gradable. Things can be easier or harder. Thus, quite, when used with easy, means fairly or rather. Examples: How did you find the maths test? ~ Oh, it was quite easy, really. / It was quite difficult. What did you think of the cabaret? ~ Oh, it was quite entertaining. I'm quite tired but I'll try and finish this book review before I go to bed. quite with verbs When quite is used to modify verbs, the meaning depends on whether the verb is regarded as gradable or not. Examples: I wouldn't want to be on holiday with him, but I quite like him. How did you get on at Barry's party? ~ Oh, it was quite nice. I quite enjoyed myself. I haven't quite finished decorating Jim's bedroom yet, but I will have by Saturday. I quite agree with you. Young children must never be left at home on their own. quite with a / an + (adjective) noun When quite is used to modify nouns or adjectives with nouns, it normally has the meaning of rather. Examples: I know they left in a hurry. How did they leave the house? ~ Oh, it was in quite a mess. How was the house contents auction? ~ Oh, it was quite a success. Nearly everything went. Let's take a picnic with us. I think it's going to be quite a nice day. Did you get to see Hamlet at the Barbican? ~ Yes, it was quite an interesting production.

off / on

off / on as prepositions Off functions as a preposition of position or movement and is the converse of on. We speak of getting on a bus and off a bus, taking things off the table and putting them on the floor. Here are some examples of other common usages of off as a preposition: Did she jump off or fall off the cliff or did someone push her off? ~ Nobody knows! I'm off alcohol just now. A big celebration last Sunday. And it's put me off my food too. I think this crab pate has gone off, you know. It doesn't taste fresh any more. Have you heard? There's 20 % off all CDs at the music shop in Elm Street next Friday. You don't have to keep off the grass in this park. You can walk anywhere on the grass. expresssions with off We also speak about people being off-balance, off-colour, off-duty, doing things on the off-chance and having off days. Examples: I caught him completely off-balance and he didn't know what to say. She'd been off-colour for days, but there was no sign of any real illness developing. Could you just do this for me? ~ Sorry, love, I'm off duty at the moment. ~ When are you on again? I decided to take a detour into Paris on the off-chance that Amelie might be there. Brobbins, the club's leading striker, had an off day and missed three open goals. phrasal verbs with off There are many common phrasal verbs with off, such as put off (= postpone), knock off (finish work), lay off (dismiss from work, usually temporarily), bring something off (complete something successfully), polish off (eat something quickly). Examples: I've been putting it off for weeks, but it's no good, I shall have to go to the dentists soon. Aren't you going to knock off soon? You've been staring into that computer screen all day. 700 workers will be laid off in the Belfast shipyards following a decline in orders. They had a wonderful time. I didn't think you'd be able to bring it off. I thought the Christmas cake would hang around for weeks, but they soon polished it off.

LEAVE / LEFT / LET

let + infinitive A very common usage of let is in the phrase let us or let's when we are making a suggestion involving others. We say this instead of Why don't we…? or I suggest we… which is quite formal. It is often used with shall we? as a question tag. Examples: Let's just have a cold salad for supper this evening, shall we? And let's go for a run before we eat! OK. Let's do that! Let's forget I ever said that, shall we? I didn't mean to offend you. When it is used with the negative there are two alternative versions to choose from: don't let's or let's not. Both are very common. Examples: Let's not get too involved in their argument. It's better if they sort it out themselves. Don't let's go to Sheila's party tonight. Let's just have a quiet evening at home. Let is also commonly used to make a suggestion to oneself in the phrase let me or to a third person in the phrase let him/her/them. Note also the usage with the infinitive of there is/there are. Examples: Do you like this outfit? Let me see. I like the orange dress but not with that hat. I'm going to sell my car. Do you want to buy it? I'm not sure. Let me think about it. There's still a stain on this jumper. Let me try to get it out with this stain remover. Can Joey and Phoebe stay overnight next weekend? Oh, please let them stay. Let there be no doubts in your minds that we shall win this battle. Let = allow/permit Let also means allow or permit. These are more formal alternatives and require to before the infinitive. Examples: Let me say how pleased I am to see you here this evening. Allow me to say how pleased I am to see you here this evening. Permit me to say how pleased I am to see you here this evening. I wouldn't let them stay up after nine to watch the adult film on TV. I can't let you go to France without me. Note that with the passive voice, we have to use permit or allow: Examples: We didn't let him go home until he had spoken to the Headteacher. He wasn't allowed/permitted to go home until he had spoken to the Headteacher. let me know/ let me have Let is frequently used with know, where it means tell, and have, where it means send or give. Examples: Please let us know as soon as possible whether you are able to accept our offer. If you had let me know earlier, I would have saved it for you. Can you let me have those reports by midday on Friday, please? Let me have half an hour to think about it and then I'll let you know. leave = go (depart/quit/abandon) As we saw with let, leave has a number of different meanings and uses. Examples: The plane left early as everybody was on board half an hour before take-off. (= departed) Nobody leaves school at the age of sixteen now, like they used to. (= stops attending) Don't tell Maureen I'm leaving her. (= abandoning) left = remaining Here it is almost opposite in meaning and is used as a past participle normally at the end of the clause, often with there is/are or have got. Examples: I haven't got any cash left. Can you get the sandwiches? There were only two days' rations left, but they had to last for six days. Nothing was left of the castle. It had been completely destroyed. leave = let it remain It is here that the meaning of leave comes closest to let, close but not identical. Examples: I'll eat later. Just leave it for me in the fridge. I left my car in the car park and took the bus into the town centre. I can't make the decision. I'll leave it for you / to you to decide what to do. I can't get the stove to work. Leave it with me / to me. I'll deal with it. This final example combines a number of different usages of let and leave: Let me finish off the translation for you. OK. There are only four pages left. I'll leave it for you. I have to leave now anyway! There are even more shades of meaning of leave than we have covered. Check them out in a good dictionary.

'have' / 'have got' When we are talking about possession, relationships, illnesses and characteristics of people or things we can use either have or have got. The have got forms are more common in an informal style. Have got has the same meaning as have and both are used as present tenses. Note that have got is NOT the present perfect of get. To make questions and negative sentences with have we normally use the auxiliary verb do. To make questions and negative sentences with have got we use the auxiliary verb have. Example: How many subsidiaries has your company got? Study these further examples and note that in informal speech we often switch from one form to the other:   - How many subsidiaries does your company have? It has two.  - How many sisters do you have? I’ve got three (sisters). Do you all have your own bedrooms? Sue’s got her own bedroom, but neither Debbie nor I have. We have to share. (Note in this last example that have to is used as an alternative to must because the need to share is imposed on the sisters.)   - Have you got a new car, Paul? Yes I have. I bought it last week. Has it got air conditioning? No it hasn’t. But it’s got a CD player. Do you have very many CDs? I’ve got hundreds. Note the way in which we form short answers and question tags with have got and have:   - Have you got a sore throat as well as a runny nose? No, I haven’t. But you’ve got a high temperature, haven’t you? Yes, I have.  - Does this music school have enough pianos? No, it doesn’t. But you have enough opportunities to practise, don’t you? No, we don’t. future forms of "have" Note that we normally use the have got form of have only in the present tense. For future reference different forms of have used. Compare the following:   - Have you got tickets for the match on Saturday? No, I haven’t. Not yet. Will you have them by tomorrow? I hope so.  - Have you got any time to help me with my maths homework? Not now I haven’t. Sorry. Are you going to have any time at the weekend, do you think? Yes, I’ll probably have some time then. past tenses with "have" Similarly, for past tenses we use different forms of have, not have got. Compare the following:   - Have you still got a bad headache? Yes, I have. How long have you had it? I’ve had it on and off since yesterday. Did you have it at the concert last night? Yes, I did. I couldn’t concentrate on the music properly. 'have had' / 'had had' Have had is the present perfect form of have describing actions or states which started in the past and continue up to the present. Had had is the past perfect form of have, which we use to talk about longer actions or situations which continued up to a past moment that we are describing. Compare the following: I’ve had stomach ache ever since I ate those spam sandwiches. I’ve got some pills which are good for digestion. Why don’t you take those? I started out on the five-mile swim after I’d had a good rest. If I hadn’t had a good rest, I would never have completed it. But because I had had a good rest before I started, I completed it in less than two hours. Note from the above examples that I’ve is the contracted form of I have and I’d is the contracted form of I had. It is also the contracted form of I would. Example: If I hadn’t had a good rest beforehand, I’d never have completed the five-mile swim.

Less - Fewer Less is used with uncountable nouns, like money or work or travel, and fewer is used with countable plural nouns, like coins or jobs or trips. Less is the comparative form of little and fewer is the comparative form of few. Examples: I have less work now than I had this time last year. There are simply fewer jobs around that I am suitable for. I therefore have little money and few friends. Another, more common, way of saying less is not as much and another, more common, way of saying fewer is not as many. Similarly little would translate as not much and few would translate as not many. Examples: My new car doesn't use as much petrol as my old one so it's more economical. My new car uses less petrol than my old one so it's more economical. You don't see as many Peugeot 405s on the road now as you used to. You see fewer Peugeot 405s on the road now than you used to. I don't have much need to use my car in town when public transport is so good. I have to admit that there are few occasions when I walk anywhere nowadays. Note that all of these uses have negative implications. If we want to be positive about something, we would use a little or a little bit of or a few. Examples: I can't go out in such weather, but I have a little bit of food in the house so I shall be OK. I can't go out in such weather and I have little food in the house so I'm quite worried. A few of my colleagues turned up for my presentation, so I was quite pleased. Few of my colleagues turned up for my presentation, so I was quite upset. Many / much - a lot of Note that much and many are mostly used in negative clauses and in questions. They are not so common in affirmative clauses where we tend to use a lot of, lots of, plenty of or, very colloquially, loads of instead. Examples: In my stamp collection, I've got a lot of / lots of / plenty of Asian stamps, but I don't have very many African stamps. Do you have many African stamps in yours? There wasn't much traffic on the road in the snow, not very many cars and very few lorries, but, even so, there was a lot of bad driving. I've got loads of Simpsons videos, but not so many Simpsons comics. Least / fewest - most Note also that least is the superlative form of little / not much and fewest is the superlative form of few / not many. Most is the superlative form of much, many and a lot of. Examples: Jane always seems to do the least work in this office and Andy clearly does the most. I do quite a lot, but I have fewer duties than Andy. Geraldine tends to make the fewest mistakes in the work she does while Kevin makes the most. the least - at least Note also expressions with the least ( = the minimum) and at least ( = as a minimum requirement as well as not less than). Examples: You've worked such long hours today - the least I can do is to drive you back home. She's completed at least fifty pages of her new novel this week I know you're not well enough to eat anything, but at (the very) least try to drink this.

Likely Likely is most often used as an adjective, meaning probable, (opposites unlikely / improbable). If something is likely, it is probably going to happen. Examples: The most likely cause of the fire in the stadium was an unextinguished cigarette. The most likely outcome to the investigation is that the stadium will have to be rebuilt. With the modifiers most, quite or very, likely is also sometimes used as an adverb, meaning most probably. Example: They'll quite likely invite you out to eat in a restaurant when you're staying with them. it's likely that + clause Likely is quite often used with it as a preparatory subject. Examples: It's unlikely that this afternoon's session will last very long. It should be over by five o' clock. It's more than likely that I shall see Chris in Cambridge. I am almost certain to bump into him, in fact. be likely to + infinitive As an alternative, we can use the be unlikely to + infinitive construction with a normal subject, but probable cannot be used in this way. Examples: This afternoon's session is unlikely to last very long. I'm unlikely to be back late from the meeting. Are you likely to be staying in when you get back? Note that if we wanted to use probably as an alternative in these examples, it would need to re-phrase them as follows: This afternoon's session will probably finish quite early. I shall probably be back quite early from the meeting. Will you probably stay in when you get back? The authorities will probably be hard pressed to respond to the disaster. hard pressed / pushed If you are hard pressed or hard pushed to do something, you experience great difficulty in doing it. Being pressed suggests being under pressure: It seems to me that the Labour government will be hard pressed to win the next election. We were hard pushed to complete all the preparations before the guests arrived. Use of the adverb hard here suggests a lot of force being used against you. Note that hard also sometimes suggests physical force: This door is inclined to stick, but if you push it hard, it will open. pressed for time / money / etc Pressed also collocates with time and money and other ideas in a similar way to hard pressed, suggesting difficulty. Examples: Are you pressed for time? If not, I suggest we have some lunch. This one's worn out. Why don't you buy a new one? ~ I'm a bit pressed for cash at the moment. It's not really her subject, but she says she could teach beginners Spanish if we're really pressed.

"-ing form" or "to infinitive"

"-ing form" or "to infinitive" It is really a matter of learning which verbs take 'to-infinitive' clauses and which take an '-ing' clause. For example, 'hope', 'expect', 'learn' normally take 'to-infinitive': Examples: 'I learnt to swim in Portugal last summer.' 'I expect to get high marks in this exam because I put in a lot of work for it.' 'I hope to recover in time for my business trip to Thailand in August'. After some verbs, e.g. 'tell', 'advise', 'ask', 'to-infinitive' follows the object. Examples: 'We asked them to show us the way.' 'He advised me to drive more slowly through the village.' 'I told him to be quiet.' Other verbs, such as 'enjoy', 'finish', 'admit', 'mind', 'feel like', 'can't help', 'look forward to' take an '-ing' clause. Examples: 'I can't help feeling that it's going to rain before we get home.' 'I feel like stopping work now and coming back to it later. ' 'Do you mind not talking in here? Speaking is not allowed in the library.' 'He admitted taking the bribe and leaking the documents to the press.' 'I always enjoy listening to Mozart whenever I'm feeling stressed.' 'She finished cleaning the floor and then she hoovered the room.' 'I look forward to hearing from you.' 'Prevent' is followed by an object + (from) + an '-ing' clause. Examples: 'I prevented him from stealing the painting'. Some verbs such as begin, start, like, love, hate, continue, cease can take either a 'to-infinitive' or an '-ing' clause and there is usually little or no difference in meaning between them. Examples: 'I like to read in the bath.' 'I like reading in the bath.' 'I continued to work till Sally came in and then we had supper.' 'I continued working till Sally came in and then we had supper'. 'To decide to' would be the norm. Example: 'She has decided to model clothes for both the English and the Italian fashion houses this year.' 'Decide' + '-ing' would only be possible if the '-ing' form functions as a gerund, as in. Examples: 'She decided modelling was the best career for her.' 'I decided smoking was bad for me.'